Order of Liabilities: Debt and Credit in Ali Pasha's Regime

The Order of Liabilities is a sub-project of MapOE, carried out by Ali Yaycıoğlu and Fatma Öncel, with the technical contributions from Erik Steiner. 

This initiative is rooted in the careful examination of fiscal inventories housed in the Ottoman Imperial Archives and kept during the rule and after the death of Ali Pasha of Ioannina.

Visualizing Financial Connections

One notable aspect of this project is the creation of visualizations by Fatma Öncel and Erik Steiner. These visuals offer insight into the complex financial relationships that existed within the Ali Pasha Order. They span the geographic region from Epirus to Thessaly in central Greece, as well as from Avlonya (Vlorë) to Delvinë, extending to Ağrıboz (Negroponte or Evia). The timeframe covered is approximately from 1818 to 1822.

When referring to financial relations, we are specifically addressing a range of obligations stemming from interactions involving debt and credit relations, and financial agreements. These connections encompass Ali Pasha, his associates, local notables from both the Muslim and Christian communities – including ecclesiastical leaders, financiers, and diverse rural, urban, and pastoral communities.

Taxation

In his capacity as governor, Ali Pasha held the authority bestowed by the Ottoman state to levy a range of standard taxes and fees, including the tithe and poll tax. Local communities were obligated to contribute payments to Ali Pasha for a specified duration. Frequently, these communities found themselves in debt to Ali Pasha due to challenges in meeting their full tax obligations. This situation led to the establishment of a structured payment agreement between Ali Pasha and these communities. Under these arrangements, the communities committed to settling their outstanding taxes and dues during subsequent tax seasons, accompanied by an added interest component. This practice resulted in the communities being documented as debtors within fiscal records.

In Ottoman law, obligations, namely all kinds of liabilities, were generically called Żimmet (in Arabic Ḍimmah) They included debts (deyn), non-performance of a contract or surety and guarantee (kefālet/kafāla). See Żaman/Ḍamān.

Çiftlik management

However, Ali Pasha's influence and demands extended beyond the realm of imperial taxes. He engaged in a wide spectrum of financial interactions and collaborations with local individuals and communities. He not only provided them with credit but also offered his protection. Notably, due to his established control, both formal and informal, over rural properties referred to as "chiftlik" (Turkish: çiftlik), many rural communities found themselves indebted to Ali Pasha. This indebtedness stemmed from his dual role as both a patron of production endeavors and a creditor extending loans to peasant communities. These loans served to settle their obligations to other authorities or to secure essential resources. Such resources included funding for necessities like seeds, logistical support, and the commissioning of infrastructure. These initiatives were crucial for sustaining both their production activities and fulfilling communal needs.

Primary and secondary obligations

In approximately half of these debt relationships, it becomes apparent that communities were not directly indebted to Ali Pasha. Frequently, intermediaries of financial and managerial nature played a pivotal role in these transactions. These intermediaries primarily consisted of individuals with titles and roles, spanning both Christian and Muslim spheres. These brokers, who could be diverse in background, found themselves in debt to Ali Pasha. Their indebtedness sometimes arose from their role as tax-farmers, as Ali Pasha frequently entered into agreements with the entities under his jurisdiction. On other occasions, these brokers maintained a close association with Ali Pasha and functioned as his representatives. Alternatively, these intermediaries might have also been indebted to Ali Pasha as representatives of the community.

Within these three scenarios, the communities held the primary responsibility for liabilities ("primary liability holders"). They were mandated to remit their dues, taxes, or rents to the intermediaries. In this framework, the intermediaries assumed the role of secondary liability holders, accountable to pay Ali Pasha in accordance with their established arrangements or contracts. In essence, what emerges is a progression of obligations, flowing from the primary liability holders to the secondary ones, and eventually culminating with Ali Pasha. In many respects, these secondary liability holders emerge as the central figures within the political and fiscal framework of the Ali Pasha order. They not only managed distinct units as managers and patron creditors, but they also occupied positions as local leaders within the Ali Pasha's order.

Network of obligations

It is crucial to include Ali Pasha's personal obligations within this network of liabilities. In his capacity as a governor and holder of various agreements and contracts, both short-term and long-term, with the central administration, Ali Pasha incurred obligations and debts to other authorities. These obligations often extended to the central elites of the imperial establishment, other provincial governors, central treasuries, the mint, and even imperial waqfs.

Between Ali Pasha and these external authorities and stakeholders, an ongoing exchange of financial transactions, negotiations, and arrangements ensued. These discussions revolved around Ali Pasha's maintenance of his positions, contracts, and jurisdiction, as well as his fulfillment of obligations, debt repayment, and service to the empire. Within this intricate framework, pivotal roles were undertaken by "sarrafs," or financiers responsible for facilitating money transfers from Epirus to Istanbul. These financiers extended their support by acting as guarantors when Ali Pasha secured an office or contract. Furthermore, they played a significant role in managing Ali Pasha's debts and credits at the local level.

1822 - Post-Mortem Settlements between the Liability-Holders and the Ottoman State

Within the scope of the Order of Liabilities project, our focus is directed towards a comprehensive exploration of the liabilities present within the framework of the Ali Pasha order. These liabilities have been meticulously documented in a series of inventories found within the Ottoman Imperial Archives. 

Notably, these inventories were compiled subsequent to the execution of Ali Pasha by the Ottoman authorities. This significant event unfolded in the wake of a siege of Ioannina, orchestrated by the Ottoman governor Hurshid Pasha in January 1822.

After the execution, the Ottoman fiscal officers initiated a massive settlement with communities, households and individuals across Epirus, Southern Albania and central Greece, to reveal the assets, debts and credits of Ali Pasha. Consequently, the Ottoman officers examined Ali Pasha's documents and account books in his archive and prepared a number of inventories listing liabilities and liability holders in these regions under his full or partial control. In our project, we examine these inventories and discern this post-mortem settlement between the liability holders and the Ottoman State and debt collection process. The debt collection process often involved deals, negotiations and confrontations between the local communities indebted to Ali Pasha and the Ottoman administration.

The visualization of liabilities and the intricate process of debt settlements and collections can be effectively achieved through a diverse array of available tools (such as Tableau, Palladio, Gephi, R, etc.). These tools empower us to create visual representations such as graphs, timelines, maps, and network diagrams. These visuals aptly illustrate the restructuring of debts, the redistribution of Ali Pasha's wealth, and the transition of his movable assets and real estate to new proprietors through auctions. Additionally, they capture the evolution of collective negotiations, portraying how these interactions metamorphosed into conflicts between local communities and the central Ottoman authority.

HAT 403/21137. (16 September 1822/29 Z 1237)

As the first step to examine the liabilities and debt settlements after the death of Ali Pasha, we have examined a liability inventory (zimem defteri) among the Ottoman Imperial Archives database of this project. The inventory was prepared eight months after Ali Pasha’s death, in September 1822.

  The title of the defter reads as follows: “It is the [account] book that lists the amounts of receivables of the late Tepedelenli Ali Pasha. This is the translation of the books and documents in Greek that had been sent to Istanbul and the register kept by the community of Avlonya. Ali Pasha’s former clerk Kosti, who is now in Istanbul for translating these documents, has testified that the liability holders hold title deeds (temessük), account books (defter), and even letters (pusula) authorized by Ali Pasha and Muhtar Pasha.” 

The inventory has thirty-two pages, with eleven chapters listing 419 entries of debts (liabilities) to Ali Pasha and his son Muhtar. Each chapter represents a district (liva) under Ali Pasha's full or partial jurisdiction, namely Avlonya (Vlorë), Yanya (Ioannina), Tırhala (Thessaly), Selanik (Thessaloniki), İlbasan (Elbasan), Ohri (Ohrid), İnebahtı (Lepanto), Agriboz (Negroponte), Delvine (Delvinë), Paşa (Paşa district refers to Manastır (Bitola) district, which was the seat of the governor of Rumelia province during the time) - with an additional chapter for those debts occurred between Ali Pasha and foreigner (European) merchants.

 Below we see a map illustrating the regional distribution of liabilities in terms of number of records as listed in HAT 403/21137.

1. Distribution of Liability-holders

In examining HAT 403/21137, we gain valuable insights into the diverse facets of debts owed to Ali Pasha. The visual representations below offer a comprehensive view of the regional distribution, sources, and quantum of debts slated for settlement just prior to Ali Pasha's passing.

This visualization also delves into the spectrum of liability holders, showcasing their varying identities. Among these holders, certain individuals stand as singular entities, while others constitute communal bodies collectively indebted to Ali Pasha. The category labeled "no intermediary groups" (depicted in dark blue) signifies direct collective indebtedness, unaffected by intermediaries. The grouping titled "communities" (depicted in light green) encompasses secondary liability holders working collectively.

Furthermore, distinct categories emerge among liability holders. There are those in the role of intermediaries, creditors, and representatives for various communities. These individuals might serve as secondary liability holders or primary liability holders, the latter being indebted to Ali Pasha based on their independent affairs. We will later delve deeper into this classification.

2. Origins of Liabilities

The visuals presented below shed light on the distinct origins from which liabilities have arisen. The foremost category is "Liabilities Arising from Agricultural Ventures." Predominantly, these liabilities stem from debts owed by the "çiftlik" farmers to Ali Pasha. Following this is the category marked as "Unspecified," signifying liabilities not explicitly classified.

The third category encompasses "Liabilities Resulting from Livestock Activities." Lastly, the fourth category pertains to "Liabilities Arising from Imperial Taxes." These liabilities materialized when communities faced challenges in fulfilling their regular imperial tax obligations to Ali Pasha, either being unable to pay or having not yet settled their dues just prior to his demise.

A more comprehensive breakdown of the origins of liabilities is presented in the subsequent graphic. In the initial column, we encounter unspecified liabilities. Further down, there is an illustration depicting the regional dispersion of liability sources. Notably, it becomes evident that Avlonya emerged as a primary hub for liabilities, encompassing both agricultural and pastoral indebtedness.

Presented above is a network diagram depicting various liability types, visually connected through intersecting lines indicating their concurrent presence. The nodes within the diagram are proportionally sized in accordance with the total liability amounts. Several pivotal themes emerge within this network:

1. Key Liability Types: The network is anchored by four primary liability types - Tax-farm (iltizam), farm (çiftlik), winter pasture (kışlak), and provisioning (zahire). These four hold significant importance in terms of the overall liability amount and serve as foundational components to unveil Ali Pasha's operational framework.
2. Outcomes: The network uncovers several significant outcomes:
   • The revenue streams from agricultural operations are leased to Ali Pasha and his associates, with collection managed by Ali Pasha's agents.
   • Winter pastures play a vital role within the revenue generation of farms.
   • Winter pastures also carry importance in the context of transhumant communities and their engagement with Ali Pasha.
   • Provisioning the army and the capital city constitutes a cornerstone of Ali Pasha's influence, relying on his wheat-cultivating farms for this purpose.
   • Farm economics hinge on a delicate equilibrium between provisioning and winter pastures. The extensive wheat cultivation required for provisioning is a central function of Ali Pasha's farms.
   • Winter pasture revenue comprises cash rent from transhumant Vlachs who leased Ali Pasha's winter pastures. This source is affirmed as the primary cash revenue generator for these farms.
   • Noteworthy interconnections are observed between "provisioning" and "winter pasture," extending beyond their relationship with farms.
3. Farm Nexus: Farms exhibit the highest number of network connections, totaling 14 connections. This prominence signifies that comprehending the debt order is intricately tied to understanding farms.
4. "Eşya" Significance: The term "eşya" emerges in a singular case, albeit with the highest value of 800,000 guruş. This particular case encompasses multiple liability sources, including "zahire," "eşya," "kışlak," and "iltizam."

This network diagram serves as a powerful tool for unraveling the multifaceted tapestry of liabilities and their interdependencies within Ali Pasha's framework.

3. Geographical Dispersion of Liability Holders

How were different types of primary and secondary liability holders distributed across regions? The map provided below yields insight into this query. The map unveils that a significant concentration of liability holders originated from the Avlonya district. Evidently, the majority of individuals indebted to Ali Pasha in Avlonya were, in fact, individuals rather than collective community entities. In essence, the Avlonya scenario contrasts with other districts, where the pattern showcases individual indebtedness rather than communal engagement. Furthermore, a noteworthy aspect is that a substantial number of these individuals were of the Muslim faith.

Some among these individuals assumed the role of primary liability holders, while others functioned as secondary liability holders. We will delve further into this distinction.

This pattern shifts distinctly in regions such as Delvine, Paşa, and Ağriboz districts, where the category of non-intermediary liability holders holds considerable prominence. In these districts, a significant proportion of liabilities primarily rests with communities, without the intervention of secondary liability holders.

The Yanya district demonstrates an even distribution between Muslim and non-Muslim (Christian) liability holders. Conversely, in the Tırhala district, nearly half of the liability holders emerge from the non-Muslim notables (Kocabaşıs) group.

The map provides a vivid snapshot of the diverse distribution of liability holders, affording a deeper understanding of their affiliations and roles within distinct regions.

4. Geographical Spread of Primary Liability Holders

Across all regions, communities emerge as the dominant primary liability holders. Equally notable is the prevalence of personal indebtedness among a considerable number of ordinary individuals to Ali Pasha. Comparatively, individuals holding notable titles constitute a smaller proportion of primary liability holders. However, a comprehensive analysis of the origins of these individual personal debts cannot be provided at this juncture.

The subsequent graphic provides an alternative visualization showcasing the regional allocation of liability holder types within the framework of the Ali Pasha Order, framed by the magnitude of their liabilities. Notably, Avlonya emerges as a crucial district housing a substantial number of secondary liability holders, predominantly encompassing regular individuals without official titles.

This observation underscores that Avlonya played a pivotal role in funneling capital into Ali Pasha's administrative structure. Both ordinary individuals and notables from Avlonya played crucial roles as creditors to communities, effectively functioning as intermediaries between these communities and Ali Pasha.

5. Financial Intermingling in the Ali Pasha Order

This undertaking underscores the pivotal role of liability (zimmet) within the Ali Pasha Order, a pattern consistent with other regional frameworks within the Ottoman Empire during the 18th and early 19th centuries. Ali Pasha's regime was significantly constructed upon a complex network of obligations and debts binding together communities, intermediaries, and Ali Pasha himself. Of particular significance were the intermediaries – the secondary liability holders – who stood as indispensable actors within this regime. Not only did they serve as creditors to local communities, intricately connecting these communities with Ali Pasha's administration, but they also reaped benefits from this intermediary position. These benefits took shape as interest, commissions, and wielded political influence. The Mapping Ottoman Project will further develop an array of case studies to elucidate the nuanced facets of this financial and political configuration existing between communities, diverse intermediary figures, and Ali Pasha.

We draw this analysis to a close with a visualization that aptly illustrates the financial interweaving intrinsic to the Ali Pasha Order. Below, a map portrays the intricate connections linking primary and secondary liability holders. Notably, we observe a concentration of secondary liability holders in Avlonya, Delvine, and Ioannina. Remarkably, these secondary liability holders maintained intricate financial ties with distinct localities spanning the Ali Pasha Order. To elaborate, secondary liability holders located in Avlonya played a role in revenue collection across the breadth of the Ali Pasha Order, while their counterparts in Delvine and Ioannina had strong involvements in revenue gathering from Inebahtı.